Transboundary Air Pollution
Transboundary Air Pollution
Air
pollution is a mix of hazardous substances from both human-made and natural
sources.
Vehicle
emissions, fuel oils and natural gas to heat homes, by-products of
manufacturing and power generation, particularly coal-fueled power plants, and
fumes from chemical production are the primary sources of human-made air
pollution.
Nature
releases hazardous substances into the air, such as smoke from wildfires, which
are often caused by people; ash and gases from volcanic eruptions; and gases,
like methane, which are emitted from decomposing organic matter in soils.
Ozone,
an atmospheric gas, is often called smog when at ground level. It is created
when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries,
and other sources chemically react in the presence of sunlight.
Noxious
gases, which include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx),
and Sulphur oxides (SOx), are components of motor vehicle emissions
and by-products of industrial processes.
Transboundary
air pollution is a particular problem for pollutants that are not easily
destroyed or react in the atmosphere to form secondary pollutant. These are
cross boundary pollutants that can be generated in one country and felt in
others; these require international actions and collaboration to control their
formation and effects. Transboundary air pollutants can survive for periods of
days or even years and can be transported 100s or thousands of miles before
they affect the air, we breath, soils, rivers, lakes and/or our food.
Transboundary air pollutants cause a number of different problems: e.g.,
formation of particles, ground level ozone which are hazardous to health, the
formation of acid rain which can damage buildings and sensitive ecosystems and
some that are toxic to human health and the environment.
The
EMEP programme under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
is a scientifically based and policy driven instrument for international
co-operation to solve transboundary air pollution problems.
Sources
Transboundary
air pollution originates from various sources, which can include both natural
processes and human activities. Here are some of the primary sources:
Industrial
Emissions Manufacturing Industries: Factories that produce
chemicals, metals, cement, and other goods can emit a variety of pollutants,
including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, and particulates.
Transportation
Vehicles: Cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles emit pollutants
such as NOₓ, carbon monoxide (CO), VOCs, and particulate matter.
Shipping:
Maritime transport, including cargo ships and tankers, releases sulfur
compounds and NOₓ, especially in international waters where regulations might
be less strict.
Aviation:
Aircraft contribute to emissions of NOₓ and particulate matter at high
altitudes, which can affect air quality over large areas.
Burning
of Agricultural Residues: In some regions, the burning of crop
residues is a common practice that releases significant amounts of PM, VOCs,
and other pollutants.
Fossil
Fuels: The use of coal, oil, and gas for heating in
residential areas contributes to the emission of SO₂, NOₓ, and PM.5.
Natural
Sources Wildfires: Wildfires can produce large amounts of
smoke and particulate matter, as well as CO and VOCs, which can travel across
borders.
Volcanic
Eruptions: Volcanoes can emit sulfur dioxide and ash, which can
spread over large areas and affect air quality.
Dust
Storms: In arid regions, dust storms can carry particulate
matter across vast distances, impacting air quality far from the source.
Atmospheric
Transport: Pollutants can be carried by wind currents over long
distances, often crossing national borders.
Waterborne
Pollutants: While primarily a concern for water
quality, pollutants that enter waterways can also evaporate and contribute to
air pollution. Each of these sources can contribute to a range of pollutants
that can travel across borders, impacting air quality in neighboring countries
and regions. Addressing transboundary air pollution requires coordinated
international efforts to regulate and reduce emissions from these diverse
sources.
International
agreements and regional collaboration
International
agreements provide a framework for cooperation and commitment among countries Convention
on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP): Established in 1979 under
the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), CLRTAP aims to limit
and reduce air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution. It
has several protocols addressing specific pollutants and issues. Kyoto Protocol
and Paris Agreement: Although primarily focused on greenhouse gas emissions and
climate change, these agreements also impact air pollution control, as many air
pollutants and greenhouse gases have common sources. ASEAN Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution: A regional agreement among Southeast Asian
nations to address haze pollution, often caused by forest fires and land
clearing.
Regional
initiatives allow neighboring countries to work together on shared issues.
European
Union (EU) Policies: The EU has implemented directives like the
National Emission Ceilings Directive and the Industrial Emissions Directive to
regulate air pollutants and industrial emissions across member states.
North
American Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC):
Facilitates cooperation on environmental issues, including air pollution,
between Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
Acid
rain became a prominent environmental issue in North America during the 1970s
and 1980s. The problem was particularly severe in the northeastern United
States and southeastern Canada, where industrial emissions and vehicle exhaust
contributed to high levels of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ).
These pollutants led to significant environmental damage, including the
acidification of lakes and rivers, harming aquatic life and forests.
The
air quality of Myanmar is generally good. However, with rapid development,
Myanmar has been experiencing a rise in air pollution in urban areas. Yangon
and Mandalay are experiencing increased urbanization from rural-urban
migration, and growing density as the urban population growth has been faster
than spatial growth. The increasing number of vehicles is a matter of concern
as vehicles are the main source of air pollution in urban regions of Myanmar.
The yearly averaged concentrations of PM2.5 observed at Mandalay monitoring station
during 2015, 2016, and 2017, were 47 (μg/m3), 33 (μg/m3), and 37 (μg/m3),
respectively, which were about four times higher than the WHO guidelines of 10
μg/m3. The level of SO2 is showing a decreasing trend. Most values of pH
throughout the years were between 6 and 7 hence the acid deposition is still
not significant in the Yangon area. In addition, 16 rain sample collection
stations were extended during 2019, located close to neighboring countries to
monitor acid deposition due to transboundary haze pollution. Currently, a total
of 41 rain sample collection stations are in operation to monitor acid
deposition across Myanmar since 2003.
Generally,
no negative impacts of acid deposition have been identified in Myanmar.
Yangon/Mandalay City Development Committee monitored ambient air quality at 67
places across Yangon since 2015 for CO2, CO, NO2, NO, SO2, CH4, and PM. Air
pollution measurements were also done in crowded areas, dense traffic areas,
and near industrials zones in Yangon in September 2016 and November 2017. The
levels of CO2 and CH4 were particularly high in areas of garbage dumping,
ditches, and trees, while the CO level was high at intersections prone to
traffic congestion. NO2 and SO2 were also found in the air while the level of
PM was high near construction.
In
Myanmar, in particular, in Yangon, the primary source of air pollution is
traffic, diesel generators, construction, power plants, factories, burning of
waste, and slash-and- burn agricultural practices. Air pollution peaks every year
from January to April.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) vs. WHO
Guidelines
|
Air Pollutants |
Average Time |
NAAQs(µg/m3) |
WHO Guidelines(µg/m3) |
|
PM10 |
24-hr |
50 |
50 |
|
1-yr |
20 |
20 |
|
|
PM2.5 |
24-hr |
25 |
25 |
|
1-yr |
10 |
10 |
|
|
SO2 |
24-hr |
900 |
- |
|
1-yr |
20 |
20 |
|
|
No2 |
24-hr |
200 |
200 |
|
1-yr |
40 |
40 |
|
|
O3 |
8-hr |
100 |
100 |
Myanmar adopted its national ambient air
quality standards (NAAQS) similar to those of WHO guidelines.
AWARENESS
ACTIVITIES, RELEVANT POLICIES AND FUTURE PLAN
· DMH
published a brochure on acid deposition problems in Myanmar. The brochure has
been distributed to schools, universities, libraries, governmental departments
and NGOs, and other relevant and interested parties.
· Education
programmes of Myanmar television, a talk on the causes and impacts of acid
deposition, were broadcasted.
· Poster
exhibitions, publishing articles in newspapers and journals, and education on
acid deposition for public servants to sensitize them to the relevance and
specifics of the problem.
· Development
of policies, guidelines and planning for environmental pollution control,
natural resources management and environmental sustainability, action plan for
transboundary haze pollution control in Myanmar.
· Capacity
development and international cooperation.
· People’s
awareness and participation events will be held in 2020.
Policies
and Practices Concerning Air Pollution
Myanmar
has the following environmental laws and an institutional framework for
environmental and air quality management in the country.
· Environmental
Policy (1994).
· Myanmar
Agenda 21 (1997).
· National
Sustainable Development Strategy NSDS (2009).
o
Initial National Communication-INC (2012).
o
National Adaptation Programme of Action -
NAPA (2012).
· Environmental
Conservation Law (2012).
· Environmental
Conservation Rules (2014).
· Intended
National Determined Contribution (INDC) (2015).
· EIA
procedures (2015).
· Environmental
Quality (Emission) Guideline (2015).
· National
Environmental Policy (2019).
EANET
Activities and Future Plan
· Regular
monitoring of EANET parameters about dry deposition and wet deposition at
designated monitoring sites.
· Participation
in the QA/QC activities, including inter-laboratory comparison projects.
· Annual
maintenance, calibration work, and visit to monitoring sites.
· Hands-on
training on monitoring and analysis of acid deposition parameters.
· Upgrade
the National Monitoring Plan.
· Enhance
local network cooperation.
· Enhance
capacity building, research activities and strengthening technology in the area
of acid deposition and ambient air quality.
· Extend air quality monitoring (PM2.5) in countrywide
In
response, both the U.S. and Canada implemented regulatory measures to address
the issue. For example, the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 included
provisions to reduce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. Similarly,
Canada introduced measures to tackle emissions and mitigate acid rain's impact.
By
the late 1990s and early 2000s, these regulations had led to significant
improvements in air quality and a reduction in acid rain levels. Nonetheless,
ongoing monitoring and regulation are essential to address any remaining issues
and prevent future problems.
Transboundary
Haze Pollution and ASEAN’s Response
Transboundary
haze pollution has been a recurrent phenomenon in the ASEAN region to various
degrees over the years. These incidences have arisen due mainly to the
cumulative effect of slash and burn and/or other types of moderate to
large-scale burning to clear land for growing agricultural crops like corn and
plantation trees such as pulp wood, rubber or oil palm and all of this often
occurring concurrently. Some of the plots are held by small holder farmers
while a good proportion belong to large plantation owners. ASEAN had recognized
this emerging issue for more than two decades and started to formally address
the problem in 1995 with the establishment of the Haze Technical Task Force
under the ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment – the ASEAN committee designated
to help tackle this regional issue. The problem attracted regional and
worldwide attention with the occurrence of severe fire and haze episodes in1997
and 1998. This prompted ASEAN to intensify cooperation efforts to deal with
this serious environmental menace. Mechanisms were put in place including a
Regional Haze Action Plan along with institutional setups to prevent, monitor,
and mitigate fires and haze, especially the potential adverse transboundary
impacts on neighboring countries. Several major initiatives were developed and
implemented, often with external donor support to fight the emerging
environmental threat.
One
of these significant endeavors was the formulation of the ASEAN Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) which was eventually signed by all ASEAN
member states in June 2002 and came into force with ratification by a total of
six member countries in November 2003, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Indonesia became the 10th ASEAN
country which deposited its instruments of ratification for this agreement in
January 2015, thus completing the legal process of fully enacting this only
piece of ASEAN legislation pertaining to the environmental sector. Among the
institutional provisions of the AATHP is the convening of the Conference of
Parties (COP) and the establishment of a Secretariat (whose functions are to be
performed by the ASEAN Secretariat) to support the servicing of the COP and
other relevant activities in connection with the implementation of the
agreement. It also includes the creation of the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for
Transboundary Haze Pollution Control ‘for the purpose of facilitating
co-operation and co-ordination among the Parties in managing the impact of land
and/or forest fires in particular haze pollution arising from such fires.[1] In terms of organizational
setup, the transboundary haze pollution issue has been under the oversight of
the ASEAN Environment Ministers who meet annually and provide overall policy direction.
They are supported by ASEAN senior officials who also meet regularly to review
developments and guide implementation of targeted programmes and projects
addressing the problem. Two subregional Ministerial-level Steering Committees
(MSCs) have been established to create more focused impetus to the required
work – one for the southern area covering Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand and another for the northern or Mekong area
covering Cambodia, the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Both these
fora meet periodically at ministerial as well as senior official levels to
coordinate the needed cooperation efforts in their respective geographic
subregions. Technical working groups have also been set up under both MSCs to operationalize
the agreed work plans. In addition, bilateral collaboration arrangements have
also come into existence especially between Malaysia–Indonesia and
Singapore–Indonesia as well as between Thailand and some of its immediate neighbors
to help combat the fire and/or haze threat.
The
ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre based in Singapore supports the
tracking of hotspots and haze movements as well as providing periodic forecasts
of weather conditions across the region. ASEAN has developed a region-wide Fire
Danger Rating System as a tool to help guide and monitor the ground and
atmospheric conditions which could become fire-prone. In this regard, an alert
level, trigger points, and action on fire suppression system has been adopted
to complement and enhance the existing Standard Operating Procedures for
Monitoring, Assessment, and Joint Emergency Response under the AATHP. Recently,
attempts have also been made to operationalize the ASEAN Subregional Haze
Monitoring System (HMS) with the intention to share relevant maps of likely
fire-prone and hotspot areas that may cause transboundary haze. Moreover, the
northern (Mekong) MSC has set a target of achieving cumulative hotspot counts
of less than 75,000 by 2017(coincidentally on the 50th anniversary of ASEAN)
and not exceeding 50,000 by 2020. ASEAN has also established guidelines for
controlled burning and zero burning and plans to implement zero burning
policies on peatlands across the region by 2020. Since peatland fires generate
a considerable amount of smoke haze and are hard to control due to the peat
seam layers which can burn underground, ASEAN has implemented a peatland
management initiative and strategy. Several projects have been undertaken over
the years targeting this particular type of ecosystem with funding support from
donor sources and lately an ASEAN Task Force on Peatlands has been established
to help steer activities on sustainable peatland management.
Recently,
there has been an agreement in principle to develop a Roadmap on ASEAN
Cooperation towards Transboundary Haze Pollution Control with Means of
Implementation to achieve a vision of a haze-free ASEAN by 2020.
Under
the provisions of the AATHP, an ASEAN Transboundary Haze Pollution Control Fund
has been established with contributions from member countries, at present
reaching USD 350,000 out of the initial expected amount of USD 500,000.
Impacts
of Air Pollution
The
impacts resulting from fires and transboundary haze, however, could be
significant and include:
· Losses
to property and/or degradation of natural resources, forest, biodiversity, and
ecosystem including damage to agricultural production.
· Increase
in emissions of greenhouse gases and other hazardous pollutants.
· Harmful
effects on health including injuries and fatalities to humans and animals
leading to untimely ailments and even early deaths.
· Adversely
affecting various modes of transport operations due to safety concerns
including accidents arising from poor visibility.
· Negative
impact on tourism and business.
· Rights
to clean air, good health, and quality livelihoods being denied to numerous
affected communities and ordinary citizens.
· Strained
neighborly relations amongst ASEAN member countries, if not others.
· Seriously
dent the image of ASEAN solidarity and effectiveness.
It
has been estimated that the overall loss from the fires and haze during the
1997 1998 episodes was up to US$9 billion for Indonesia[2] and around US$200 million for
Singapore.[3]
Human
Health Impacts Cancer: Certain air pollutants, such as
benzene, formaldehyde, and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs), are
carcinogenic and can increase the risk of cancers, including lung cancer.
Developmental
and Reproductive Effects: Air pollution can adversely affect
fetal development and may contribute to low birth weight, preterm births, and
developmental delays in children. It can also affect reproductive health.
Environmental
Impacts
Acid
Rain: Pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen
oxides (NOₓ) can combine with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulfuric
and nitric acids, leading to acid rain. Acid rain can damage forests, soil, and
aquatic ecosystems, altering soil chemistry and harming plants and animals.
Ecosystem
Damage: Air pollutants can deposit on soil and water
surfaces, altering nutrient cycles and affecting the health of ecosystems. For
example, nitrogen deposition can lead to nutrient imbalances, affecting plant
diversity and growth.
Economic
Impacts
Cross-Border
Tensions and Diplomacy International Disputes:
Transboundary air pollution can lead to disputes between countries, especially
if pollution from one country significantly affects another. This can strain
diplomatic relations and necessitate international negotiations and agreements.
Need
for International Cooperation: Addressing transboundary
air pollution requires coordinated international efforts, including shared
monitoring, information exchange, and joint policy initiatives.
Climate
Change and Global Implications Contributions to Global Warming:
Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, and tropospheric ozone are potent
climate forcers, contributing to global warming and altering weather patterns.
Polar and Global Impacts: Black carbon deposition on snow and ice can
accelerate melting in polar regions, contributing to sea-level rise and global
climate changes.
Challenges in
Enforcement of Air Pollution in Legal Framework
Multiple
Regulations: There are many international, national, and local laws, that
relating to air pollution and which lead to fragmentation and inconsistency.
Different pollutants, sources, and sectors may be regulated under different
laws, making more difficult and complicated in enforcement action
Emerging
Pollutants: New pollutants or sources of pollution are constantly being
identified, requiring the legal framework to adapt quickly. However, existing
laws may not be flexible enough to address these new challenges.
Economic
and Industry Influence: Powerful industries may lobby against strict
regulations, resulting in watered-down laws or exemptions that undermine the
effectiveness of air pollution control measures.
Balancing
Economic Growth and Environmental Protection: Policymakers often face pressure
to balance economic growth with environmental protection, leading to
compromises that can weaken air pollution laws.
Resource
Constraints: Government agencies responsible for enforcing air pollution laws
may lack the necessary resources, such as funding, staff, and technology, to
monitor compliance effectively.
Legal
Loopholes: Industries may exploit loopholes in the law to avoid compliance,
making it difficult to enforce regulations. Additionally, vague or poorly
drafted laws can lead to inconsistent enforcement and legal challenges.
International and
Cross-Border Issues and Transboundary Pollution
Air
pollution does not respect national borders, making it difficult for individual
countries to address pollution that originates elsewhere. International
agreements are necessary but can be challenging to negotiate and enforce.
Public
Participation and Awareness: Public participation in the legal process, such as
in the drafting of laws or in enforcement actions, is often limited. This can
result in laws that do not fully reflect public concerns or priorities.
Slow
Legal Procedures: Legal actions related to air pollution, such as lawsuits or
regulatory changes, can take years to resolve. This delays the implementation
of necessary measures to reduce pollution.
Burden
of Proof: In legal cases, proving the direct link between a specific source of
pollution and its impact on health or the environment can be challenging,
especially with diffuse sources of pollution.
Solutions
Develop
New Treaties: In regions without comprehensive
agreements, countries should negotiate new treaties that address specific
transboundary air pollution issues, ensuring that all affected parties are
included.
Vehicle
Emission Standards: Enforce stringent vehicle emission
standards, promote electric and hybrid vehicles, improve public transportation,
and encourage active transportation (walking, cycling) to reduce emissions from
the transportation sector.
Pollution
Taxes and Fees: Introduce taxes or fees on activities
that release significant pollutants, such as carbon taxes or sulfur fees, to
encourage businesses and individuals to reduce emissions.
Invest
in Research: Governments and international
organizations should fund research into the health, environmental, and economic
impacts of transboundary air pollution, as well as new technologies and methods
for reducing emissions.
Climate
Change Mitigation: Address air pollution and climate change
together, as many air pollutants (e.g., black carbon, methane) also contribute
to global warming. Coordinated policies can maximize benefits for both air
quality and climate.
Forest
and Land Management: Implement sustainable forest and land
management practices to reduce the risk of fires, which can contribute
significantly to transboundary pollution.
Conclusion
Air pollution contributes to global warming
and climate change. It is also considered as a problem because it not only
affects the environment but also damages crops, forests, animals, and the human
body. So, we should maintain the forests and cover the wildfires, volcanic
eruptions, the use of coal, oil, and gas. We should use electric and hybrid
vehicles to encourage active transportation (walking, cycling), to reduce
emissions from the transportation sector. And we also think it is necessary to
plant more trees. Environmental is affected by humans. So, humans are
responsible for preserving it.
♡♡Thank
you♡♡
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